School represents the formal learning context where learner’s develop useful skills for job placement and socio-cultural and economic progress (OECD, 2021). Despite investments in educational contexts, school dropout continues to be worrying in Italy, where in 2020 the rate of young people who left school early was 13.1% (Eurostat, 2021), while the community average is 9.9% (EU, 2021).

National (Trinchero, Tordini, 2011; Batini, Bartolucci, 2016; Nuzzaci, Marcozzi, 2019) and international (Rumberger, 2011; Lundetræ, 2011; Nakajima et al., 2018) literature highlights various risk factors for school dropout, they concern the following macro-areas: individual factors, such as psychological characteristics of students, any learning difficulties and disabilities, dysfunctional attitudes and behaviors towards school, self-perception and school experience; family factors, such as coming from culturally disadvantaged backgrounds and low expectations towards school and academic success; socioeconomic factors, such as low family income and, consequently, the need to start working an early age; scholastic factors, such as inadequate teaching methods, negative interpersonal relationships, dysfunctional organization of the school, scholastic failure, large classes and early choice of a secondary school course.

Considering the impact of school dropout on individuals and communities (Batini, 2023), a research project was carried out within a PhD course organized by the University of Salerno. The objective is to investigate the risk factors that influence the spread of the phenomenon in Campania. The region was chosen because when the survey was started in 2020, the school dropout rate was 17.3% (Istat, 2021) and it did not record a decrease compared to the previous year’s data. The research involved a reasoned sample of schools with alarming rates of school dropout. Specifically, the sample is made up of pupils attending the last year of 4 middle schools in the province of Naples, pupils attending the first and second year of 102 high schools in the five provinces of Campania, School Directors and teachers of the same schools; the sample that was formed became on a voluntary basis.

The research followed a mixed method (Creswell, Clark, 2011) where «qualitative and quantitative approaches dialogue synergistically at different moments of the same research, with the aim of finding the best possible answers to the question that gave rise to the research itself» (Trinchero, 2020: 246). In this contribution, we present the descriptive analysis of data. They were collected through the administration of two semi-structured questionnaires, already validated and taken from the literature (Batini, Bartolucci, 2016): one is aimed at pupils to detect opinions and perceptions on school life and dropout; one is aimed at School Directors and teachers to collect opinions and prevention proposals. The analysis will focus on the items that concern the risk factors that the various actors involved attribute to school dropout. Based on the results of the quantitative analysis, their comparison with the theoretical framework and their triangulation with the qualitative data collected in the field (Stake, 2000), we will design a prevention intervention to combat the phenomenon of school dropout in Campania.

Self Determination Theory (SDT, Ryan & Desi, 2017) is a theory that refers to the motivation, well-being and development of the individual's personality, focusing, in particular, on the cultural and social contexts that promote the manifestation of self-determined behaviours. In the school context, SDT is mainly concerned with promoting in students an interest in learning, through the process of self-regulation of motivation to study (Black & Desi, 2000, Niemues, & Ryan, 2009, Ryan & Deci, 2009, 2020), by supporting the importance of intrinsic motivation and its benefits to produce educational outcomes (Ryan & Deci, 2020). According to SDT, teachers who support student motivation do so by putting into practice a series of behaviours useful to promote the entire process of self-regulation of motivation, helping to develop intrinsic and lasting motivation in students (Reeve & Jang, 2006; Ryan & Deci, 2020, Reeve & Cheon, 2021; Reeve et al., 2022). Studies that have applied SDT in the school context have contributed to the development of a system of classification of teacher behaviours (Ahmadi et al., 2023), leaving the field of research open to investigate which teacher behaviours are actually a support or an obstacle to the motivational needs of students. Therefore, research in this area, both in the national and international context, has not yet reached an exhaustive definition of what effective behaviours are. This work is part of this scenario and aims to broaden knowledge regarding the factors that predict the motivation of upper secondary school students to study, by focusing on the active involvement of teachers. For this reason, the research project adopts a Research-Training approach (Asquini, 2018) aimed at promoting the professional development of teachers through the implementation of training courses. In this way, teachers not only refine specific practices and techniques, but experiment what they have acquired directly in their own classes. An initial theoretical part, dedicated to the reconstruction of the theoretical framework on SDT, is followed by an operational part in which the project framework is presented, the tools adopted for a preliminary analysis and a possible structuring of the training interventions to be implemented in classroom contexts.

The research aims to investigate the motivation for studying among children living in multi-problem contexts, where economic and social issues, particularly related to deviance and delinquency, converge. In the identified area, a region of Campania in southern Italy, the Camorra, an organized crime structure similar to the Mafia, involves children and families in its criminal system.(1)(2)

In this study, motivation is understood as a dynamic and relational force that emerges from the interaction between the individual and their environment (3) and from their perception of the positive and negative valences of the context (4). In a multi-problem context, difficulties can generate, especially at a developmental age, a sense of fatalism, a low agency (5) which is combined with a lack of self-determination (6) and self-efficacy (7), processes that can strongly affect motivation for study. The hypothesis of this research is that, although statistical data relate early school leaving to deprived and marginal contexts (8), motivation is not necessarily conditioned by the context but could instead represent an autonomous area of development, and therefore early school leaving could be connected to other personal or social elements.

The questions are: Is it possible to find a relationship between multi-problem contexts and motivation for studying? What are the characteristics of an educational intervention capable of effectively supporting motivation for studying among children and young people living in such contexts? In line with these research questions, the objective is to explore the motivation of students coming from multi-problem contexts; to identify the characteristics of an educational intervention that can affect the quality of motivation; and to isolate possible elements of transferability in similar contexts.

Methodology

This study is part of a broader project aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of a community project called Integra in a multi-problem context. The presented research is inspired by the Response-to-Intervention (RTI) (9) approach within an integrated research design that includes sets of quantitative and qualitative data. The research project consists of three phases: Phase A and C - Detection In these phases, screening is carried out through the administration of the questionnaire, AMOS 8-15 (10). Phase B - Intervention The intervention involves support activities for teaching as part of the Integra project.

Expected Results

In accordance with Goal 16 of the 2030 Agenda, particularly targets 16.1; 16.6; 16.7, the research aims to investigate a possible relationship between motivation for studying and the multi-problem context. Here, data related to phases A and C are expected to be presented. Subsequently, the research will continue by integrating the quantitative and qualitative data of phase B to delve deeper into the relationship between motivation and educational intervention. Following this detection, an attempt will be made to identify the characteristics of an educational intervention that can not only counter this trend but also provide a replicable model for future interventions in similar contexts to support the training processes of children in situations of vulnerability.

Education serves as a fundamental tool in equipping individuals with the necessary knowledge and skills to pursue meaningful careers, economic prosperity, and active societal engagement. However, a premature departure from the educational or vocational system, termed "Early Leaving from Education and Training" by the European Union (European Commission et al., 2019), poses a significant challenge with far-reaching consequences for both individuals and societies worldwide (International Labour Organization, 2019; OECD, 2023). Efforts to combat dropout rates have been ongoing, as evidenced by the establishment of targets and policies by international organizations and national governments (Council Resolution 2021/C 66/01; UNESCO, 2016). Yet, addressing school dropout is complex, as it represents the culmination of long-standing issues stemming from multiple risk factors, often manifesting through early warning signs (Duperé et al., 2015; EASNIE, 2019; Rumberger, 2011).

Our Evidence and Gap Map provides a synthesis of current evidence regarding the effectiveness of dropout programs. An Evidence and Gap Map is a systematic evidence synthesis product displaying available evidence relevant to a specific question and utilized to identify gaps requiring filling with new evidence (White et al., 2020). Our EGM will examine the effects of prevention, intervention, and compensation programs on ultimate outcomes (i.e., dropout rates and graduation/completion rates), as well as intermediate factors (i.e., academic performance, behaviors, attitudes, relational, and social factors). According to European policies, prevention programs aim to reduce the risk of school dropout for all students, before the problem starts; intervention programs aim to avoid students dropping out of school by reacting to early warning signs and providing specific support for students at risk; compensation programs aim to re-engage students who left the education system without completing it, offering them ways to earn a qualification (Council Recommendations 2022/C 469/01, 2022).

To ensure robust findings, we include experimental or quasi-experimental studies on group designs that compared the results of a treatment group implementing the intervention under evaluation with a control group as well as systematic reviews with meta-analysis (Cooper et al., 2019; Shadish et al., 2002).

The EGM is still ongoing, and it will display the program domain in rows and outcomes in columns. Each study will be allocated to the appropriate cell according to the evidence it presents. Bubbles, representing groups of studies of the same type, will differ in size (based on the numerosity of studies) and color (based on the study design). Additionally, the EGM will integrate diverse variables as filters—such as geographical area, grade level, SES, urbanity level, program target population, and research design characteristics—into its online interactive platform. The EGM will provide policymakers, program developers, researchers, and practitioners with valuable insights to inform the design, implementation, and evaluation of effective dropout interventions.

In recent years, research in the pedagogical-didactic field has focused its attention on the opportunities arising from students' participation in assessment processes, paving the way for the concept of "assessment for learning," understood as an evolution of the better-known concept of "formative assessment." Placing students at the centre of the assessment moment serves the dual purpose of increasing their awareness of learning objects and, at the same time, guiding them in the development of personal assessment literacy (Duncan & Buskirk-Cohen, 2011).

The driving force behind the development of these studies can be attributed to the growing influence of Evidence-Based Education (EBE) culture, promoted especially by Hattie in the 1990s. This culture has paid particular attention to the impact that a specific educational intervention can have on students and the possibility of making this accessible to researchers and teachers to guide their decisions.

This work, aligning with this perspective, aims to address the critical issues stemming from educational research still too often anchored in a lack of clarification of procedures (Calvani, 2020). The goal is to ensure a broader dissemination of experimental educational research that, using scientific research methods, implements controllable actions, by indicating solutions to improve learning-teaching processes (Hattie, 2009).

In the same scenario, research has highlighted the central role of feedback in learning processes (Black & William, 1998) and, in particular, has emphasized the benefits of implementing peer assessment in didactic planning (Marzano, 2023). Despite these findings, empirical research on peer assessment is still limited in the school context and mostly confined to the university environment.

Nuthall (2007), in one of the rare studies involving primary school students, demonstrated that 80% of the feedback each student receives on their work comes from other students and is often of low quality. Before generating feedback, both from students themselves and teachers, it is important to build a classroom climate that ensures the positive and favourable acceptance of "mistakes", and see them as opportunities to improve learning.

Considering these premises, this work delves into the practice of peer feedback in the context of primary school with the aim of investigating its effects on students' reading and synthesis skills. Thus, it fits into the ongoing path of experimental activities undertaken by the Scientific Association S.Ap.I.E. The latter, with the goal of selecting effective teaching methods to enhance text comprehension in 9-10-year-old children, has developed the RC-RT program (Reading Comprehension – Reciprocal Teaching) (Calvani & Chiappetta Cajola, 2019), which has recorded significant results and provided relevant indications for future research. Our intent, therefore, was to integrate this program with the use of peer feedback (PF-RC-RT) to obtain additional evidence with the aim of providing teachers with an approach aimed at promoting a classroom environment that fosters the improvement of students' assessment literacy and significantly impacts the quality of learning.