The paper aims to focus attention on the complexity of the school dropout, as object of scientific investigation. Specifically, it addresses the related issue in effectively comparing different sources of data, as a preliminary moment for practical and policy intervention choices. Even today, national and international research has not assumed an unambiguous construct and a shared definition of the school dropout, as object of scientific investigation. Indeed, at the level of documents, there is an overlap between dispersal and neglect, and this influences descriptive survey frameworks and ways of accessing data, both locally and generally. Such uncertain situation, sometimes of contradiction, makes complex - as expected - to return a picture of the phenomenon. It also leads to the collection and return of data based on different criteria and definitions, therefore hardly compatible with each other. Moreover, as a direct consequence emerges the lack of proper data sharing among different educational agencies that often present different results (due to techniques, rates and survey population adopted) without the possibility of adopting shared practical and political intervention strategies.
In the first part, the most accredited definitions and constructs in international and national documents are recalled. There is, in fact, an 'umbrella' effect in which the definitions of early school leaving (ESL, ELET, refers to a person aged 18 to 24 who has completed at most lower secondary education and is not involved in further education or training) and school dropout (a much more complex and broad concept) are superimposed. This prevents the identification of a substantial number of students who, while not having formally left school, should be included in the numbers of dropouts (repeaters, parked, in school dropout, education mortalities ...).
The paper addresses then some issues related to the first comparison of quantitative and qualitative data sources for reconstructing the phenomenon at the general level. The criteria used in the initial phase of a systematic review work on the types of data on school dropout within the doctoral project 'School dropout and dropout data' conducted at the University
of Anonymous Town in cooperation with the municipality of the Town are presented. The systematic review work is analysing 2078 scientific articles collected using the code "school dropout data", identified in Google Scholar, Scopus and Web of Science.
The aim is to emphasize that the use of data systems for analysis and identification of the phenomenon is indispensable for identifying its characteristics, monitoring it, and choosing strategies to remedy it. Therefore, it is essential to start from a sharing and understanding of data in order to bring out a more composite and reliable picture of the current situation so as to avoid reading the phenomenon ‘with out-of-focus lenses’ and to outline the strategies to be deployed at the local level.

The phenomenon of drop-out, school dropout, and abandonment represents a complex challenge for educational systems worldwide, with negative consequences for students, their families, and society as a whole (Cascioli, 2021; Lamb et al., 2011; Mastorci et al., 2022). As known, high drop-out and school abandonment rates are associated with lower academic achievements, fewer job opportunities, and higher risks of involvement in risky behaviors. This study, a preliminary part of the research project "TALENTED" funded by PRIN PNRR funds and concerning intervention in secondary schools in three different regions of southern Italy, aims to conduct a review of the dimensions most investigated in literature and the most used tools to assess early attitudes and aspects capable of negatively influencing academic success. Our research concerns aspects related to all stakeholders, namely students, families, and teachers (Batini & Bartolucci, 2016).
The research goal is to review the factors and theoretical constructs underlying the school dropout phenomenon and school failure, which are widely discussed in the international scientific literature, in order to assess and understand the key aspects that contribute to student engagement and academic success. Dimensions that, regarding students, involve very different aspects and variables such as emotional well-being, self-esteem, anxiety, expectations, aggressiveness, and coping and study strategies used (Archambault et al., 2009; Bussu & Pulina, 2020; Nixon et al., 1990; Rumberger & Lim, 2008; Rumberger & Rotermund, 2012; York et al. 2015). Regarding parents, alongside socioeconomic variables, beliefs, educational expectations, as well as data on the quality of family relationships, parental involvement, and emotional support offered can provide valuable information (Parr & Bonitz, 2015). As for teachers, it is known that they can significantly influence students' school experience through their teaching style, their attitude to pursue improvement, self-efficacy perception, propensity to work in teams, ability to provide emotional support, and intervene to improve the classroom climate (Lenart, 2016; Knesting-Lund et al. 2013; Nairz-Wirth & Feldmann, 2017).
Understanding the most relevant dimensions and the most used tools to evaluate attitudes, aspects, and actions capable of influencing academic success allows informing educational policies and promoting targeted interventions to prevent drop-out and foster a more inclusive and supportive school environment for all students. In the case of our project, such a review is functional to the entrance detection, ongoing monitoring, and ex-post evaluation of the effectiveness of active intervention strategies that will be implemented in some pilot schools.

Early school leaving is an urgent and complex problem that national and European institutions have long been trying to address (Council of the European Union, 2021; MIUR, 2014). A wide range of factors - both in and out of school - contribute to early school leaving, including household responsibilities, lack of parental guidance, large family size, poor economic conditions, failure in exams, lack of time for study, punishment by teachers, and lack of interest in studies (Baruah & Goswami, 2014). Financial resources, policies, student-teacher-parents relationships, and academic performance also play a significant role (Orion et al., 2014). Commitment and support for students are key factors, as identified by teachers and school managers (Gil et al., 2019). Feeling behind or failing coursework is a major factor in secondary school dropout (Lockett & Cornelious, 2015).

Within this framework, an interesting line of research and experimentation can be given by paying attention to teaching strategies and methodologies (Bonaiuti, 2014) that can reduce early school leaving.

The present work aims to verify whether the use of gamification in education can contribute to reducing school dropout rates and is linked to a broader research promoted by the PRIN project Teaching And LEARNING effectiveness to promote studeNT achievement and prEvent school Dropout (TALENTED) which aims to identify a series of didactic approaches to be applied in the school context to prevent school dropout.

Gamification, understood as «the use of game thinking and game mechanics to engage users and solve problems» (Zichermann & Cunningham, 2001, p. XII), can be used in school settings by making use of the approaches and mechanisms typical of gaming and video games in order to enable students to achieve specific learning outcomes. The interesting elements that are a constituent part of gamification are: points, levels, challenges, badges, leaderboards, rewards/rewards, progress bars and feedback (Brull & Finlayson, 2016). By using these elements within appropriate strategies and avoiding rigidly behaviourist approaches, the use of gamification in education has been shown to have a positive impact on student engagement and motivation (Colombo, & Tièche Christinat, 2017).

Guerrero-Puerta & Guerrero (2021) found that gamification can improve student well-being and school engagement, potentially reducing the risk of early school leaving. Similarly, Khaleel et al. (2020) reported that gamification increased student engagement in difficult subjects, which could potentially lead to improved retention. Harrington & Mellors (2021) and Aleksic-Maslac et al. (2017) both highlighted the positive impact of gamification on student engagement and retention in tertiary settings, further supporting the potential of gamification to reduce school dropout. However, the specific application of gamification in addressing early school leaving in the context of dispersion interactions remains an area for further research.

The National Recovery and Resilience Plan (NRRP) promotes the implementation of specific actions to reduce the phenomenon of early school leaving and school drop-out.

The Plan aims to promote tutoring and counselling actions, in addition to measures aiming at enhancing school hours (e.g. extension of school hours and reconsideration of the summer holiday period), reviewing the educational offer and reinforcing pupils' transversal skills. Moreover, these actions can be fostered by collaboration between the School and the Community as a whole (i.e., other Institutional bodies, associations and Third Sector entities).

In this framework, the contribution analyses the decrees and the interventions adopted to implement the NRRP, investigating also the results that have so far been achieved.

The contribution also examines the role of the collaboration between School and the Educating Community, also composed of the Third Sector that is engaged in this particular field. The School Community and the Civil Society Community can, together, promote the construction of actions aimed at the prevention of early school leaving cases. In fact, only a collaborative community can seriously approach the problem of early school leaving and the need to rethink ways to make education more attractive for all. A number of experiences and good practices in which Schools and the Third Sector are working together to achieve the same goal, i.e. to reduce early school leaving cases, will be identified and analysed.

Finally, it will be possible to consider whether these actions are the real implementation of the principle of substantive equality and the right to education protected by the Italian Constitution. To this end, the opportunity and need to systemise the actions, good practices and experiences implemented at local and national level will be assessed. In this way, it will be possible to offer to all the knowledge of positive experiences and good practices that can be repeated in other territorial contexts and can be used as the basis for a national plan and/or strategy for the prevention of early school leaving and school drop-out.

School dropout is defined as "the lack, incomplete or irregular access to education and training services by school-age individuals " (Authority for Children and Adolescents, 2022, p.20). It represents a complex and composite phenomenon which negatively impacts the economic and productive growth of a country. In particular leaving school before its completion is one of the main indicators used to measure school dropout and allows us to identify individuals between 18 and 24 who achieve a middle school diploma at most or interrupt their educational path. To tackle this phenomenon, the European Union (European Council Resolution 2021/C 66/01) has set the objective of reducing the percentage of early leaving to below 9% by 2030. The need to implement strategies to prevent school dropout in Italy is also highlighted by the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (PNRR, 2021). Italy is the country with the highest rate of young people aged between 15 and 29 who are Not in Education, Employment or Training (NEET).
In this scenario, Evidence 4 Preventing Early school Dropout (E4PED) is a research project of national relevance, financed under the MUR-PRIN 2022, which includes three research units of Southern regions (Cagliari, Palermo and Salerno) where the phenomenon of school dropout is more common. Based on European and Italian goals, the project aims to provide education professionals with a reliable source of research evidence and effective practices to address early school leaving. The following goals and research methods are the core of the project: (i) synthesizing international evidence on the effectiveness of educational programs to tackle school dropout by conducting an Evidence and Gap Map; (ii) analyzing the phenomenon in the Southern regions and the best practices already in place through a mixed-methods concurrent triangulation design; (iii) developing and evaluating an intervention to prevent school dropout in Southern middle schools by conducting an educational design research. This presentation aims to show the structure of the project, the description of the activities, research methods as well as the first results achieved.

In recent years, policymakers have increasingly acknowledged the issue of school dropouts as a critical issue. Among European policies, the goal is to reduce dropout rate below 9% by 2030 (Council Resolution 2021/C 66/01). However, in 2022, 11.5% of Italian students abandoned their studies without obtaining a diploma (ISTAT, 2023), indicating a substantial gap from the European target. The question of why some students choose to drop out has been examined from various perspectives. The complexity arises from the intricate interaction among various variables encompassing both contextual factors such as students’ socioeconomic status or school functioning, and individual characteristics such as students’ self-efficacy, self-esteem, engagement, and motivation (Alivernini & Lucidi, 2011; Batini, 2023; Bianchi et al., 2021). Acknowledging the necessity for practical and effective strategies to prevent dropout, it becomes crucial to focus on “malleable factors”. Among these, students’ motivation stands out as a pivotal aspect, representing a key area for potential intervention. Building upon this understanding, it is essential to examine the phenomenon of school dropout from a motivational perspective. Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017) offers a valuable theoretical lens to delve into the motivational dynamics underlying students’ intention to drop out. According to SDT, students have different types of motivation, that can be placed along a self-determination continuum, starting from the absence of regulation, passing through different forms of external regulation, and ultimately reaching intrinsic motivation. The latter represents the highest form of autonomous motivation and is positively associated with students’ academic success, including a lower intention to drop out of school (Hardre, & Reeve, 2003; Howard et al., 2021). Therefore, it is crucial to understand how to facilitate the self-regulation process. According to SDT, this process is enhanced when students’ basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) receive adequate support. The satisfaction of these needs helps students internalize their motivation for learning and engage autonomously in their studies (Ryan & Deci, 2020). In the school context, self-determination theory plays a pivotal role, shaping students’ autonomous motivation and guiding their self-regulation process.

Grounded in SDT, the present cross-sectional study aims to investigate the relationships between need-supportive and need-thwarting teaching, students’ intrinsic motivation, and the intention to drop out. The sample consists of 1092 students from a high school in Rome. From a Path Analysis model, it emerges that when students perceive higher need-supportive teaching, their intrinsic motivation increases, whereas it decreases when they perceive need-thwarting teaching. Need-thwarting teaching also shows a direct effect on a higher intention to drop out. Regarding intrinsic motivation, results show that it is negatively associated with dropout. Furthermore, results demonstrate that intrinsic motivation plays a crucial role in mediating the impact of teaching style on students’ drop out intention. From a pedagogical perspective and in terms of practical implications, these findings suggest the importance of implementing specific interventions to improve teaching styles. This involves ensuring that teachers not only acquire the skills to be more supportive of students’ needs but also minimize behaviors that may thwart them.