This paper reexamines the translation of Lord Byron as a rebel hero and poetic model of British Romanticism in ‘May Fourth’ China, foregrounding its intricate engagement with the evolving trajectory of Chinese literary modernity. In doing so, it proposes a framework grounded in Even-Zohar’s Polysystem theory, Lefevere’s notion of rewriting, and theoretical conceptualisations of literary modernity. With a particular focus on the 1924 special issues of Short Story Monthly and Morning News Supplement, this study explores the poetic and sociocultural constraints that shaped the translation of Byron’s poetry in the era characterised by the rise of vernacular language, the prosperity of modern free verse, and the integration of Western mode of expression into Chinese literary repertoire. The descriptive and historical analysis not only unveils the critical role of translation in both reflecting and contributing to the transformation of Chinese poetry from a ‘stagnant’ old genre to a ‘living’ new one but, more significantly, suggests that the newness of the modern cannot be framed as a clear-cut rupture with the past but rather involves a set of fierce and intricate confrontations and collaborations between the traditional and the modern, as well as the indigenous and the foreign.

The study explores the transformation of The Book of Songs (Shijing) from a Confucian classic with political and educational functions to a literary work within the framework of modern literary history during the Republican era in China. Historically regarded as a cornerstone of Confucian teachings, Shijing was subjected to reinterpretation and reevaluation during the New Culture Movement. The background of this transformation lies in the emergence of the Doubting Antiquity School, which critiqued traditional interpretations and sought to restore the original essence of classical texts. Against this backdrop, the study examines how modern scholars detached Shijing from its traditional exegetical constraints, redefining it as a collection of poetic works with inherent literary value.

The significance of this research lies in its attempt to position Shijing within the broader academic and cultural shifts in early 20th-century China, reflecting the evolution of modern literary and scholarly paradigms. This study is structured around four analytical dimensions. First, it investigates the critique of traditional Confucian interpretations and the subsequent efforts to liberate Shijing from its role as a tool for political indoctrination. Second, it explores the reinterpretation of Shijing through the lens of folklore studies, identifying its elements as folk songs and cultural expressions representative of communal life. Third, it analyzes the integration of lyrical aesthetics into the evaluation of Shijing, highlighting how its emotive and expressive qualities, particularly in love poetry, resonated with the emerging concept of individualism in Republican-era literary thought. Finally, the study situates Shijing as the foundational text in Chinese poetic tradition, emphasizing its profound influence on the thematic and stylistic evolution of Chinese literature.

This research contributes to a nuanced understanding of Shijing by elucidating its transition into the literary canon through its incorporation into modern literary history. By aligning Shijing with contemporary scholarly approaches, such as folklore studies and the reevaluation of lyrical values, Republican-era scholars established it as a timeless literary work distinct from its Confucian legacy. The findings underscore the role of Shijing not only as a source of ancient poetic traditions but also as a crucial reference point in the formation of modern Chinese literary identity, demonstrating its enduring relevance in literary and academic discourse.

City has a pivotal place in the Indian writings in English. In some poetry, it is in the core of its construct. Reversely, the city itself is reconstructed. As India is developing, cities are growing, expanding rapidly providing impetus to the thought and expression into poetry. In this context, there is a need to study the pattern of growth in terms of life in city and the cities themselves as depicted in some Indian poetry. Hence, the poems of Nissim Ezekiel, Arun Kolatkar, Keki N. Daruwalla, and Jayanta Mahapatra are open for survey. They have located their poetry in different of India. Ezekiel’s poetry delves into the city of Bombay to address the angst of life in an urban setting. The poetry of Kolatkar addresses the complexities of urban life humorously. Likewise, Daruwalla’s poetry revolves around the cities of Northern India through which he goes deeper into the human lives to bring the reality out. The poetry of Mahapatra portrays the cities in Eastern part of India through which he addresses his own identity issues. Moreover, they are all modern Indian poets in every aspect, though modernity in them is not without certain variation. However, the discussion in this paper is primarily to trace the pattern of growth that is evident in their poetry in terms of cities in India and to address the consequent effect of such growth on the individual as well as the society.