Western and Tibetan Tibetologists have taken up the subject of literary genres and the definition of literature in the Tibetan context. To a much lesser extent, it was of interest to Mongolists. In the case of “Mongolian literature,” we deal with literature written in Mongolian and Tibetan, as well as literature translated from Tibetan and, to a lesser degree, from Chinese to Mongolian. For several centuries, Tibetan literature exerted a strong influence on Mongolian Buddhist literature. In the nineteenth century, the influence of Chinese literature intensified, especially in Inner Mongolia. Given the intricate and complicated history of neighboring Mongols, Tibetans, and Chinese, many topics in the field of literary studies require comparative studies, without which it is impossible to understand issues such as the understanding of literature, even in the context of, e.g., defining it in relation to oral tradition.

I want to make a small contribution to filling the gap in this literary study by discussing the example of one story about Molon Toyin descending into hell to save his mother in the context of Mongolian and Buddhist literature. The story was well-known in China, Tibet, and Mongolia. It was translated and circulated in various narratives. Some gained popularity and circulated through written communication, sometimes combining verbal, visual, and probably even performative expressions. Western and Mongolian scholars variously defined the story of Molon Toyin, e.g., as a story of peregrination through hells or a story of Indian origin. Depending on its version or even particular text, the copiest, translators, or maybe even its authors defined it as a sutra, biography, or, e.g., an illustrated tale. I want to place this one story in its various versions in Mongolian and Buddhist literature through a comparative approach considering various literary traditions and how literary studies approached them.

The full history of rhetoric in Asia—understood in the traditional sense as the art of oral persuasion—remains largely untold. This project seeks to illuminate overlooked aspects of this history, offering a fresh perspective on the concept of “literature” through the lens of the Chinese character wen (文). By examining the initial introduction of Western rhetoric to Warring States (Sengoku) Japan and late imperial China (late Ming to early Qing), as well as its reintroduction in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, I aim to trace its interactions with the intellectual, literary, and cultural forces that shaped China’s rhetorical tradition as we understand it today.

To do so, I adopt a Benjaminian constellation of key historical encounters: the Mohists of the pre-Qin period and their late imperial reappropriation, the Jesuits’ rhetorical engagements in sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century China and Japan, and the rhetorical discourse of the Meiji period, particularly its influence on Chinese intellectuals studying in Japan at the time. By focusing on these pivotal moments, I explore the complex exchanges between Eastern and Western traditions, revealing the deep interconnections between rhetoric and the literary and cultural history of the region. Ultimately, this paper challenges the prevailing scholarly view that rhetoric played only a marginal role in the literary developments of the East.

The theme of "romantic adventures" in Eastern and Western literature is not merely a depiction of male-female relationships but serves as a crucial reflection of the moral and ethical values of each society. Comparing Yang So-yu from The Cloud Dream of the Nine and Don Juan from The Trickster of Seville and the Stone Guest, this study examines how Confucian and Christian ethical frameworks define and evaluate romantic adventures.

In Confucian society, a man’s romantic relationships are closely linked to social success and familial honor. Yang So-yu’s relationships with multiple women are justified within the Confucian value system, portraying him as an "Achiever" who fulfills societal expectations through his success in government service and family prosperity. His multiple romantic engagements do not tarnish his image but rather enhance his status as a successful individual.

Conversely, in the Christian ethical framework, sexual desires are viewed as part of original sin, necessitating self-restraint. Don Juan’s relentless pursuit of women represents a direct challenge to moral and religious order. Unlike Yang So-yu, Don Juan is not socially accepted but condemned as a "Challenger" who defies ethical norms. His fate—being cast into hell—demonstrates the Christian perspective that unrestrained desires lead to divine punishment.

By comparing these two characters, this study highlights how different cultural and philosophical values shape the literary treatment of romantic adventures. While Eastern literature legitimizes such affairs as a means of achieving success, Western narratives depict them as moral transgressions warranting divine retribution. This contrast underscores literature’s role as a cultural product deeply intertwined with ethical and philosophical values. Future research may explore how these traditional perspectives on romantic ethics have evolved in contemporary literature and film, reflecting shifting moral landscapes in modern society.

The body can serve as a medium for self-expression, a subject shaped by power dynamics, an object open to influence and stimulation, and a space where cultural, religious, and political practices and conflicts intersect. This article examines the body as a contested site of racial, ethnic, gendered, and sexual conflicts in Ali Bader’s The Infidel Woman (2016) and Zadie Smith’s On Beauty (2005). Through a comparative analysis, the study highlights how both novels, despite their distinct cultural contexts, depict the body’s vulnerability and resilience within oppressive structures. By investigating how certain bodies are centralized, marginalized, or fragmented culturally, the research explores literature’s ability to illuminate shared struggles and diverse forms of resistance. The selected novels present characters whose bodies bear the weight of cultural expectations and societal prejudices, demonstrating how intersecting identities shape individual experiences of oppression and resilience. The Infidel Woman portrays its protagonist’s identity as an “infidel” under intense cultural and religious scrutiny, situating her body at the center of conflicts over gender, ethnicity, and sexuality. Similarly, On Beauty explores the experiences of Black and biracial characters in Western academia, where their bodies symbolize cultural “otherness” in predominantly white spaces. Both narratives interrogate how societal norms shape bodily autonomy and self-expression. This study employs postcolonial feminism and Valerie Bryson’s Feminist Political Theory as its theoretical framework to analyze thematic and narrative strategies employed in the novels. Ultimately, the article argues that literature remains instrumental in fostering critical discourse on gender, race, and identity, encouraging a deeper understanding of how intersecting oppressions shape the lived experiences of marginalized individuals across different cultures.