Asserting the primacy of the sonic as an interconnected but independent entity in the field of textual studies, this paper engages with Work Songs as technology in order to establish an alternative framework for understanding the relationship between work and music in the contemporary times. Through a close study of representative examples of Work Song scholarship and archival documentation from the United States of America, India, and the United Kingdom the paper first locates the existent tension between competitive styles of categorization where the analytical foci alternates between ‘labour’, ‘occupation’, ‘work’, and ‘work process’. Within the rich field of debates on categorization that arise from such archival documentation and scholarship, the paper then locates at least and by and large, two dominant strands of seeing, hearing, and thinking about Work Songs. The first strand of thought focuses on the issue of origins. In that, Work Songs are linked to certain populations in terms of their race, community, or class becoming a part of a select few – namely, the “primitive” and “natural” people of the world in their everyday labouring lives. The second strand of thought focusses on the notion of musical value in relation to the work process. In that, the ideas of labour and work gains primacy where Work Songs are seen to work as a facilitator for aiding the process of work in terms of maximizing its productivity. In both strands of thought, content and structural analyses of songs become the primary modes of engagement with an assumption of homogenous language culture or class realities. In both cases the field of textual studies become limited in the absence of an engagement with the politics of sound and audibility. It is by questioning the two abovementioned dominant strands of thinking about Work Songs that this paper arrives at reasserting ‘sound’ as that interconnected and independent entity – one that not only expands the field of textual studies but also leads us towards an alternative perspective on understanding the crucial relationship between work and music in today’s times.

Classical Indian music is deeply rooted in tradition, with its origins tracing back to the Vedic period, according to many sources. Ragas are more than just musical compositions; they evoke specific emotions and are associated with different times of the day and seasons. Traditionally, each raga is linked to a particular time of day, season, and rasa (aesthetic emotion). Raga Bhairava holds a position of primacy, traditionally considered the first raga in the Ragamala classification. Associated with early morning devotion, the Ragamala paintings of the Bhairava raga have motifs of reverence and religiosity.

Various schools, from the Rajput to the Mughal to the Pahari traditions, have rendered Raga Bhairava differently, showcasing a range of emotional intensities and aesthetic interpretations. The Raga is also linked to Lord Shiva, in his fearsome form, but most Ragamala paintings of the Bhairava Raga focus on austerity, asceticism, and devotion. Scholars suggest that ragas may have evolved over time, undergoing changes in their notes and rendition. This could explain the near absence of fear as a theme in surviving Ragmala paintings. However, depictions of the fearsome Bhairava Raga do exist, particularly in Pahari and Nepalese traditions. Most representations, however, use dark tones and early morning hues to emphasize the introspective quality of the raga, focusing more on devotion and spirituality rather than fear.

At a fundamental level, my paper will try to understand the various ways in which elements like fear, introspection or devotion are transplanted from music to poetry and painting. Likewise, the various kinds of binding verse or bandish used in renditions of the raga will also be analysed for the theme of fear and gravity. Mapping available Raga Bhairava paintings on a temporal and spatial axes will allow for a deeper understanding of artistic evolution and regional stylistic differences. Such a study of these paintings can reveal shifts in patronage, artistic conventions, and cultural influences over time. This will further offer insights into how the visual representation of Raga Bhairava evolved, reflecting broader changes in artistic taste and philosophical perspectives.