The Faces of Online Hate Speech: Who Is Exposed, Who Stands Up, and Who Pays the Price?
Chair(s): Benedetta Emanuela Palladino (University of Florence)
Online Hate Speech (OHS) is a growing concern in digital environments, particularly for its impact on youth, who are both exposed to and active participants in online interactions: adolescents themselves play a crucial role in shaping the digital landscape. The symposium aims to examine OHS from multiple perspectives, looking at the different role people can have when exposed, and focusing on the impact on youth and on the psychological processes that promote defending interventions.
Specifically, two studies explore bystander behavior and the factors influencing adolescents' decisions to act when exposed. The first (Jiménez-Díaz et al.), relying on a large sample of adolescents, analyzes the variables linked to defensive behaviors, comparing different theoretical models (The Theory of Normative Social Behavior, The Social Learning Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior). The second (Di Brango et al.) investigates the role of specific predictors of defending interventions, particularly empathy, self-efficacy, and meaning in life. Together, these two studies provide complementary insights into fostering positive proactive online behaviors. The second and third studies share a methodological focus on longitudinal intensive designs, enabling a dynamic understanding of adolescents' online experiences. The third study (Verbena et al.), specifically, examines the emotional impact of OHS on adolescents with migrant background in comparison to peers from majority groups (i.e., not targeted by the content of the OHS), analyzing intra-individual fluctuations in emotional responses to highlight the mental health consequences of OHS for vulnerable youth.
Collectively, these three contributions offer a nuanced understanding of OHS among adolescents, integrating diverse theoretical and methodological perspectives. They provide valuable insights for research and practice, informing policies and interventions that promote safer digital spaces, encourage prosocial online behavior, and empower young people.
Presentations of the Symposium
How do adolescents behave in the face of cyberhate? Implication roles, Bystander Responses, and Insights for Promoting Defensive Behaviors
Olga Jiménez-Díaz, Daniela Villa-Henao, Rosario Del Rey, Joaquín A. Mora-Merchan
Universidad de Sevilla
A comprehensive understanding of cyberhate among adolescents is still necessary. Most studies have focused on those who send and receive hate messages, but less attention received bystanders, especially those who intentionally seek out this type of content (i.e., "intentional bystanders"). Bystanders, passive, defenders and pro-aggressors, play a key role in shaping the phenomenon, especially defenders as they try to mitigate cyberhate and foster safer digital environments. Analyzing the variables linked to defensive behaviours based on different theoretical models can help to understand the cyberhate dynamics. The Theory of Normative Social Behavior (TNSB; social norms), Social Learning Theory (SLT; social norms, self-efficacy, prior experiences, and motivators like the need for online popularity), and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB; attitudes, perceived control, subjective norms, and help intention) provide us with significant frameworks to uncover key factors of defending behaviours. This study aims to 1) know the prevalence of adolescents who send, receive, see and search for cyberhate and their responses as bystanders; 2) analyze the defensive response through TNSB, SLT and TPB. The study involved 2,539 Spanish adolescents (49.1% boys, 49.2% girls, 1.7% others) aged 11-18 years (M = 14.07, SD = 1.39). Results showed that adolescents are most frequently involved in seeing cyberhate, followed by receiving, searching, and sending it. As bystanders, they predominantly engage in defensive responses vs passive and reinforcing behaviours. Structural equation models revealed all three theoretical frameworks significantly explained defending behaviours, with SLT explaining the highest variance (R² = .508). Although each theory provides specific knowledge of defending behaviour, showing its complexity, general results highlighted the importance of social norms and the role of gender, with girls showing higher defending tendencies. Findings provide essential insights into how adolescents are involved and interact with cyberhate, giving evidence to support future programs to prevent it and promote defending behaviours.
Psychological Factors Influencing Adolescents' Willingness to Counteract Online Hate Speech: The Role of Empathy, Self-Efficacy, and Meaning in Life
Noemi Di Brango1, Giuseppe Corbelli1, Alessia Teresa Virzì1, Camila Contreras1, Serena Verbena2, Yuanhang Fu1, Michela Mariotto3, Salvatore Ioverno3, Benedetta Emanuela Palladino2, Antonio Zuffianò1
1University of Rome “La Sapienza”, 2University of Florence, 3University of Rome “Roma Tre”
Adolescence is a critical developmental stage characterized by increased vulnerability to online hate speech (OHS), which refers to hostile expressions targeting specific minority group characteristics (i.e., ethnicity, religion, gender, and sexual orientation) in digital spaces. However, research on the psychological factors motivating adolescents to intervene against OHS remains limited. This study aims to explore how empathy, self-efficacy in addressing OHS and meaning in life predict adolescents' willingness to counteract OHS in everyday life.
Empathy, defined as the ability to understand and share others' feelings (Eisenberg, 2005), increases concern for those targeted by hate speech (Wachs et al., 2022). Self-efficacy in confronting OHS refers to an individual’s confidence in their ability to tackle hate content, such as by posting counter-comments or reporting it. Individuals with higher self-efficacy are more likely to engage in counterspeech (Krieger et al., 2018). Additionally, research highlights the significance of meaning in life, understood as the way individuals make sense of their existence and perceive a purpose or mission (Steger, 2009). A strong sense of meaning in life has been linked to contributing to collective well-being by fulfilling basic psychological needs (Martela et al., 2018) and promoting prosocial behaviors as counteracting OHS.
This study uses an intensive longitudinal design to examine the independent and interactive contribution of these factors to active behaviors among OHS bystanders. We will collect 28-day daily diaries from a sample of adolescents (9th and 10th grade) from different Italian regions, measuring the above variables and monitoring behaviors such as reporting hate content, engaging in counter-discourse, and promoting respectful online interactions. By analyzing these behaviors over time, the study will offer valuable insights into the factors that drive online defensive actions in adolescents’ daily lives, helping to shape future educational interventions for safer digital spaces.
Online Hate Speech and Adolescents' Well-Being: Unraveling Its Daily Impact on Youth with Migrant Background
Serena Verbena1, Giuseppe Corbelli2, Noemi Di Brango2, Michela Mariotto3, Salvatore Ioverno3, Antonio Zuffianò2, Benedetta Emanuela Palladino1
1University of Florence, 2University of Rome “La Sapienza”, 3University of Rome “Roma Tre”
Online Hate Speech (OHS) is associated with depressive symptoms and other negative outcomes (Wachs et al., 2022). However, longitudinal studies on its impact during adolescence remain limited, and little is known about the daily processes linking OHS exposure to adolescents’ emotional experiences. Among vulnerable groups, individuals with a migrant background often face additional challenges both online and offline, yet research on the psychological impact of OHS in these populations is scarce. A forthcoming systematic review (Marras et al., in preparation) highlights the prevalence of depression, anxiety, and emotional distress among targets of OHS, but methodological limitations—such as the lack of longitudinal designs—hinder a deeper understanding of processes involved.
This study examines the daily impact of OHS on positive and negative emotions and well-being among students with a migrant background, compared to their majority-group peers. It also explores the moderating roles of ethnic identity and social support in shaping the impact of these experiences. By leveraging Intensive Longitudinal Data (Bolger & Laurenceau, 2013), this study provides ecologically valid insights into how OHS exposure affects adolescents’ emotions and well-being in everyday life
As part of a multicentric project, the study involves 84 high school classes (9th–10th grade) across Italy, with data collection taking place between January and March 2025. Students will complete two survey waves and an in between 27-day daily diary to track OHS exposure, emotional responses (PANAS), loneliness, behavioral difficulties (SDQ), ethnic identity (MEIM-R), and social support. Dynamic Structural Equation Modeling (DSEM; Hamaker et al., 2018) will be used to analyze intra-individual fluctuations, focusing on first- and second-generation immigrant students (≈10% of participants) and comparing findings with the majority group.
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